Kerala, a state in southern India with extremely high rates of female literacy and attainment of education, still struggles with female employment. In 1987-1988, 59.9 percent of rural women who had completed secondary education were unemployed, compared to 28.9 percent of men of the same educational level (Mitra 782-786). The work participation rate in rural areas has even dwindled further since then. By 2001 in Kerala, the rates fell below 20 percent for 9 of the 14 districts. 

Although reasons for this are varied, a contributing factor may be the type of education that women receive in comparison to men. Cultural and societal norms and expectations cause disparities in types of education. For instance, nationwide, “88 percent of women in higher education are confined to majors in arts and commerce, while only 1 percent of women choose occupations such as engineering” (Mitra 783). The societal emphasis on degrees and majors in secondary and higher education for women appears to have less practical or lucrative outcomes in terms of labor-market participation opportunities. On the contrary, this emphasis on arts and commerce is not seen in the context of men.

The effect of education on women’s employment seems to vary by circumstances largely relating to cultural or societal dynamics.